Ginseng
Scientific Name: Panax Ginseng Other Names: Asian Ginseng, Chinese Ginseng, Ginseng, Panax, Guigai, Japanese Ginseng, Korean Ginseng, Ninjin, Oriental Ginseng, Panax schinseng, Red Ginseng, Seng
References
Anon: Ginseng, Panax. In: DerMarderosian A, Beutler JA, eds. Facts and Comparisons: The Review of Natural Products. St. Louis, MO, Facts and Comparisons. February 2001.
Argento A, Tiraferri E, Marzaloni M. Oral anticoagulants and medicinal plants. An emerging interaction. [Article in Italian] Annals of Italian Medicine International. 2000;15(2):1391-1343.
Auricchio MT, Batistic-Longatto MA, Nicoletti MA. A comparative analysis of inner wrapping and package inserts for medicines containing Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer. [Article in Portuguese] Cad Saude Publica. 2007;23(10):2295-2304.
Banz WJ, Iqbal MJ, Bollaert M, et al. Ginseng modifies the diabetic phenotype and genes associated with diabetes in the male ZDF rat. Phytomedicine. 2007;14(10):681-689.
Bespalov VG, Alexandrov VA, Limarenko AY, et al. Chemoprevention of mammary, cervix and nervous system carcinogenesis in animals using cultured Panax ginseng drugs and preliminary clinical trials in patients with precancerous lesions of the esophagus and endometrium. Journal of Korean Medical Science. 2001;16 (Suppl):S42-S53.
Bhattacharya SK, Mitra SK. Anxiolytic activity of Panax ginseng roots: an experimental study. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1991;34(1):87-92.
Block KI, Mead MN. Immune system effects of echinacea, ginseng, and astragalus: a review. Integrated Cancer Therapy. 2003;2(3):247-267.
Bressler R. Herb-drug interactions: interactions between ginseng and prescription medications. Geriatrics. 2005;60(8):16-17.
Buettner C, Yeh GY, Phillips RS, Mittleman MA, Kaptchuk TJ. Systematic review of the effects of ginseng on cardiovascular risk factors. Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 2006;40(1):83-95.
Cabral de Oliveira AC, Perez AC, Merino G, Prieto JG, Alvarez AI. Protective effects of Panax ginseng on muscle injury and inflammation after eccentric exercise. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology C. Toxicology and Pharmacology. 2001;130:369-377.
Cardinal BJ, Engels HJ. Ginseng does not enhance psychological well-being in healthy, young adults: results of a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized clinical trial. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 2001;101(6):655-660.
Carr MN, Bekku N, Yoshimura H. Identification of anxiolytic ingredients in ginseng root using the elevated plus-maze test in mice. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2006;531(1-3):160-165.
Chan RY, Chen WF, Dong A, Guo D, Wong MS. Estrogen-like activity of ginsenoside Rg1 derived from Panax notoginseng. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2002;87(8):3691-3695.
Chang YS, Seo EK, Gyllenhaal C, Block KI. Panax ginseng: a role in cancer therapy? Integrative Cancer Therapies. 2003;2(1):13-33.
Chen F, Eckman EA, Eckman CB. Reductions in levels of the Alzheimer's amyloid beta peptide after oral administration of ginsenosides. FASEB Journal. 2006;20(8):1269-1271.
Cheng Y, Shen LH, Zhang JT. Anti-amnestic and anti-aging effects of ginsenoside Rg1 and Rb1 and its mechanism of action. Acta Pharmacologica Sineca. 2005;26(2):143-149.
Cho J, Park W, Lee S, Ahn W, Lee Y. Ginsenoside-Rb1 from Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer activates estrogen receptor-alpha and -beta, independent of ligand binding. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2004;89(7):3510-3515.
Cho WC, Chung WS, Lee SK, Leung AW, Cheng CH, Yue KK. Ginsenoside Re of Panax ginseng possesses significant antioxidant and antihyperlipidemic efficacies in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. European Journal of Pharmacology. 2006;550(1-3):173-179.
Complimentary and Alternative Medicines Institute. University of the Sciences in Philadelphia. Ginseng. 2000. Available at: http://ww.cami.usip.edu/monographs/ginseng.htm. Accessed April 9, 2003.
Coon JT, Ernst E. Panax ginseng: a systematic review of adverse effects and drug interactions. Drug Safety. 2002;25(5):323-344.
Cui Y, Shu XO, Gao YT, Cai H, Tao MH, Zheng W. Association of ginseng use with survival and quality of life among breast cancer patients. American Journal of Epidemiology. 2006;163(7):645-653.
Cuzzolin L, Zaffani S, Benoni G. Safety implications regarding use of phytomedicines. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2006;62(1):37-42.
Dasgupta A, Reyes MA. Effect of Brazilian, Indian, Siberian, Asian, and North American ginseng on serum digoxin measurement by immunoassays and binding of digoxin-like immunoreactive components of ginseng with Fab fragment of antidigoxin antibody (Digibind). American Journal of Clinical Pathology. 2005;124(2):229-236.
Dasgupta A, Wu S, Actor J, Olsen M, Wells A, Datta P. Effect of Asian and Siberian ginseng on serum digoxin measurement by five digoxin immunoassays. Significant variation in digoxin-like immunoreactivity among commercial ginsengs. American Journal of Clinical Pathology. 2003;119(2):298-303.
Ding DZ, Shen TK, Cui YZ. Effects of red ginseng on the congestive heart failure and its mechanism. [Article in Chinese] Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi. 1995;15(6):325-327.
D'Ovidio K, Trucksess M, Weaver C, Horn E, McIntosh M, Bean G. Aflatoxins in ginseng roots. Food Additives and Contaminants. 2006;23(2):174-180.
Durgnat JM, Heuser J, Andrey D, Perrin C. Quality and safety assessment of ginseng extracts by determination of the contents of pesticides and metals. Food Additives and Contaminants. 2005;22(12):1224-1230.
Engels HJ, Kolokouri I, Cieslak TJ 2nd, Wirth JC. Effects of ginseng supplementation on supramaximal exercise performance and short-term recovery. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2001;15(3):290-295.
Ernst E. The risk/benefit profile of commonly used herbal therapies: ginkgo, St. John's wort, ginseng, echinacea, saw palmetto, and kava. Annals of Internal Medicine. 2002;136:42-53.
Fahim MS, Fahim Z, Harman JM, Clevenger TE, Mullins W, Hafez ES.
Effect of Panax ginseng on testosterone level and prostate in male rats. Archives of Andrology. 1982;8(4):261-263.
Gaffney BT, Hugel HM, Rich PA. The effects of Eleutherococcus senticosus and Panax ginseng on steroidal hormone indices of stress and lymphocyte subset numbers in endurance athletes. Life Sciences. 2001;70(4):431-442.
Gaffney BT, Hugel HM, Rich PA. Panax ginseng and Eleutherococcus senticosus may exaggerate an already existing biphasic response to stress via inhibition of enzymes which limit the binding of stress hormones to their receptors. Medical Hypotheses. 2001;56(5):567-572.
Geller SE, Studee L. Botanical and dietary supplements for mood and anxiety in menopausal women. Menopause. 2007;14(3 Pt 1):541-549.
Gillis CN. Panax ginseng pharmacology: a nitric oxide link? Biochemistry and Pharmacology. 1997;54(1):1-8.
Gyllenhaal C, Merritt SL, Peterson SD, Block KI, Gochenour T. Efficacy and safety of herbal stimulants and sedatives in sleep disorders. Sleep Medicine Review. 2000;4(3):229-251.
Harkey MR, Henderson GL, Gershwin ME, et al. Variability in commercial ginseng products: an analysis of 25 preparations. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2001;73(6):1101-1106.
Haughton C. Panax ginseng (Meyer). Revised September 23, 2002. Available at: http://www.purplesage.org.uk/profiles/ginseng.htm. Accessed March 28, 2003.
HealthNotes, Inc. Asian ginseng. 2002. Available at: http://www.mycustompak.com/healthNotes/Herb/Ginseng_Asian.htm Accessed March 28, 2003.
Heck AM, DeWitt BA, Lukes AL. Potential interactions between alternative therapies and warfarin. American Journal of Health System Pharmacy. 2000;57(13):1221-1230.
Hofseth LJ, Wargovich MJ. Inflammation, cancer, and targets of ginseng. Journal of Nutrition. 2007;137(1 Suppl):183S-185S.
Hong B, Ji YH, Hong JH, Nam KY, Ahn TY. A double-blind crossover study evaluating the efficacy of Korean red ginseng in patients with erectile dysfunction: a preliminary report. Journal of Urology. 2002;168(5):2070-2073.
Huang YC, Chen CT, Chen SC, et al. A natural compound (ginsenoside Re) isolated from Panax ginseng as a novel angiogenic agent for tissue regeneration. Pharmaceutical Research. 2005;22(4):636-646.
Ioannides C. Pharmacokinetic interactions between herbal remedies and medicinal drugs. Xenobiotica. 2002;32(6):451-478.
Itoh T, Zang YF, Murai S, Saito H. Effects of Panax ginseng root on the vertical and horizontal motor activities and on brain monoamine-related substances in mice. Planta Medica. 1989;55(5):429-433.
Izzo AA, Di Carlo G, Borrelli F, Ernst E. Cardiovascular pharmacotherapy and herbal medicines: the risk of drug interaction. International Journal of Cardiology. 2005;98(1):1-14.
Izzo AA, Ernst E. Interactions between herbal medicines and prescribed drugs: a systematic review. Drugs. 2001;61(15):2163-2175.
Janetzky K, Morreale AP. Probable interaction between warfarin and ginseng. American Journal of Health System Pharmacy. 1997;54(6):692-693.
Jellin JM, Gregory P, Batz F, Hitchens K, et al, eds. Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter. Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 3rd Edition. Stockton CA: Therapeutic Research Facility, 2000.
Jiang X, Blair EY, McLachlan AJ. Investigation of the effects of herbal medicines on warfarin response in healthy subjects: a population pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modeling approach. Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2006;46(11):1370-1378.
Jiang X, Williams KM, Liauw WS, et al. Effect of St John's wort and ginseng on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of warfarin in healthy subjects. British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology. 2004;57(5):592-599.
Joo SS, Won TJ, Lee DI. Reciprocal activity of ginsenosides in the production of proinflammatory repertoire, and their potential roles in neuroprotection in vivo. Planta Medica. 2005;71(5):476-481.
Karu N, Reifen R, Kerem Z. Weight gain reduction in mice fed Panax ginseng saponin, a pancreatic lipase inhibitor. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2007;55(8):2824-2828.
Kim HC, Shin EJ, Jang CG, et al. Pharmacological action of Panax ginseng on the behavioral toxicities induced by psychotropic agents. Archives of Pharmaceutical Research. 2005;28(9):995-1001.
Kim HY, Kim K. Protective effect of ginseng on cytokine-induced apoptosis in pancreatic beta-cells. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2007;55(8):2816-2823.
Kitts D, Hu C. Efficacy and safety of ginseng. Public Health and Nutrition. 2000;3(4A):473-485.
Kulaputana O, Thanakomsirichot S, Anomasiri W. Ginseng supplementation does not change lactate threshold and physical performances in physically active Thai men. Journal of the Medical Association of Thailand. 2007;90(6):1172-1179.
Lee J, Jung E, Huh S, et al. Panax ginseng induces human Type I collagen synthesis through activation of Smad signaling. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2007;109(1):29-34.
Lee JH, Shim JS, Lee JS, Kim MK, Chung MS, Kim KH. Pectin-like acidic polysaccharide from Panax ginseng with selective antiadhesive activity against pathogenic bacteria. Carbohydrate Research. 2006;341(9):1154-1163.
Lee WK, Kao ST, Liu IM, Cheng JT. Ginsenoside Rh2 is one of the active principles of Panax ginseng root to improve insulin sensitivity in fructose-rich chow-fed rats. Hormone Metabolism Research. 2007;39(5):347-354.
Lee Y, Jin Y, Lim W, et al. A ginsenoside-Rh1, a component of ginseng saponin, activates estrogen receptor in human breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells. Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. 2003;84(4):463-468.
Lee YJ, Jin YR, Lim WC, et al. Ginsenoside-Rb1 acts as a weak phytoestrogen in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells. Archives of Pharmaceutical Research 2003;26(1):58-63.
Lee J, Jung E, Huh S, et al. Panax ginseng induces human Type I collagen synthesis through activation of Smad signaling. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. Epublished ahead of print July 3, 2006.
Lewis WH, Zenger VE, Lynch RG. No adaptogen response of mice to ginseng and Eleutherococcus infusions. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 1983;8(2):209-214.
Lopez MV, Cuadrado MP, Ruiz-Poveda OM, Del Fresno AM, Accame ME. Neuroprotective effect of individual ginsenosides on astrocytes primary culture. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2007;1770(9):1308-1316.
Low Dog T. Menopause: a review of botanical dietary supplements. American Journal of Medicine. 2005;118(12 Suppl 2):98-108.
Mar C. An evidence-based review of the 10 most commonly used herbs. Western Journal of Medicine. 1999;171(33):1-5.
Metori K, Furutsu M, Takahashi S. The preventive effect of ginseng with du-zhong leaf on protein metabolism in aging. Biological and Pharmacological Bulletin. 1997;20(3):237-242.
Miller LG. Herbal medicinals. Archives of Internal Medicine. 1998;158:2200-2211.
Mitra SK, Chakraborti A, Bhattacharya SK. Neuropharmacological studies on Panax ginseng. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology. 1996;34(1):41-47.
Nah SY, Park HJ, McCleskey EW. A trace component of ginseng that inhibits Ca2+ channels through a pertussis toxin-sensitive G protein. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U S A. 1995;92(19):8739-8743.
Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, Online Edition. Pharmacist's Letter/Prescriber's Letter. Stockton CA: Therapeutic Research Facility, 2006.
Available at: http://www.pharmacistsletter.com/(S(ulqz3s45omt3ag55um4kj345))/home.aspx?li=1&st=1&cs=&s=ND.
Ong YC, Yong EL. Panax (ginseng)--panacea or placebo? Molecular and cellular basis of its pharmacological activity. Annals of the Academy of Medicine of Singapore. 2000;29(1):424-426.
Palisin TE, Stacy JJ. Ginseng: is it in the root? Current Sports Medicine Report. 2006;5(4):210-214.
Park JS, Hwang SY, Lee WS, et al. The therapeutic effect of tissue cultured root of wild Panax ginseng C.A. Mayer on spermatogenetic disorder. Archives of Pharmacy Research. 2006;29(9):800-807.
Pearce PT, Zois I, Wynne KN, Funder JW. Panax ginseng and Eleuthrococcus [sic] senticosus extracts--in vitro studies on binding to steroid receptors. Endocrinology Japan. 1982;29(5):567-573.
Petkov VD, Cao Y, Todorov I, et al. Behavioral effects of stem-leaves extract from Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. Acta Physiol Pharmacol Bulg. 1992;18(2):41-48.
Poindexter BJ, Allison AW, Bick RJ, Dasgupta A. Ginseng: Cardiotonic in adult rat cardiomyocytes, cardiotoxic in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. Life Sciences. 2006;79(25):2337-2344.
Proctor, JTA. Ginseng: Old crop, new directions. pp. 565-577. In: J. Janick (ed.), Progress in new crops. Arlington, VA: ASHS Press; 1996.
Quan FS, Compans RW, Cho YK, Kang SM. Ginseng and Salviae herbs play a role as immune activators and modulate immune responses during influenza virus infection. Vaccine. 2007;25(2):272-282.
Radad K, Gille G, Liu L, Rausch WD. Use of ginseng in medicine with emphasis on neurodegenerative disorders. Journal of Pharmacological Sciences. 2006;100(3):175-186.
Reay JL, Kennedy DO, Scholey AB. Effects of Panax ginseng, consumed with and without glucose, on blood glucose levels and cognitive performance during sustained 'mentally demanding' tasks. Journal of Psychopharmacology. 2006;20(6):771-781.
Salvati G, Genovesi G, Marcellini L, et al. Effects of Panax Ginseng C.A. Meyer saponins on male fertility. Panminerva Medica. 1996;38(4):249-254.
Saw JT, Bahari MB, Ang HH, Lim YH. Potential drug-herb interaction with antiplatelet/anticoagulant drugs. Complementary Therapy in Clinical Practice. 2006;12(4):236-241.
Sengupta S, Toh SA, Sellers LA, et al. Modulating angiogenesis: the yin and the yang in ginseng. Circulation. 2004;110(10):1219-1225.
Shibata S. Chemistry and cancer preventing activities of ginseng saponins and some related triterpenoid compounds. Journal of Korean Medical Science. 2001;16(Suppl:S28-S37.
Shim JY, Han Y, Ahn JY, Yun YS, Song JY. Chemoprotective and adjuvant effects of immunomodulator ginsan in cyclophosphamide-treated normal and tumor bearing mice. International Journal of Immunopathology and Pharmacology. 2007;20(3):487-497.
Shin HR, Kim JY, Yun TK, Morgan G, Vainio H. The cancer-preventive potential of Panax ginseng: a review of human and experimental evidence. Cancer Causes and Control. 2000;11(6):565-576.
Sievenpiper JL, Arnason JT, Leiter LA, Vuksan V. Decreasing, null and increasing effects of eight popular types of ginseng on acute postprandial glycemic indices in healthy humans: the role of ginsenosides. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2004;23(3):248-258.
Sievenpiper JL, Arnason JT, Leiter LA, Vuksan V. Null and opposing effects of Asian ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) on acute glycemia: results of two acute dose escalation studies. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 2003;22(6):524-532.
Smolinske SC. Dietary supplement-drug interactions. Journal of the American Medical Women's Association. 1999;54(4):191-192 and 195.
Spinella M. Herbal Medicines and Epilepsy: The potential for benefit and adverse effects. Epilepsy and Behavior. 2001;2(6):524-532.
Su CF, Cheng JT, Liu IM. Increase of acetylcholine release by Panax ginseng root enhances insulin secretion in Wistar rats. Neuroscience Letters. 2007;412(2):101-104.
Suh SO, Kroh M, Kim NR, Joh YG, Cho MY. Effects of red ginseng upon postoperative immunity and survival in patients with stage III gastric cancer. American Journal of Chinese Medicine. 2002;30(4):483-494.
Tournas VH, Katsoudas E, Miracco EJ. Moulds [sic], yeasts and aerobic plate counts in ginseng supplements. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2006;108(2):178-181.
Tsai CC, Lu MC, Chen YS, Wu CH, Lin CC. Locally administered nerve growth factor suppresses ginsenoside Rb1-enhanced peripheral nerve regeneration. American Journal of Chinese Medicine. 2003;31(5):665-673.
Vazquez I, Aguera-Ortiz LF. Herbal products and serious side effects: a case of ginseng-induced manic episode. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2002;105(1):76-78.
Vuksan V, Sievenpiper JL. Herbal remedies in the management of diabetes: lessons learned from the study of ginseng. Nutrition in Metabolic and Cardiovascular Diseases. 2005;15(3):149-160.
Vuksan V, Sung MK, Sievenpiper JL, et al. Korean red ginseng (Panax ginseng) improves glucose and insulin regulation in well-controlled, type 2 diabetes: Results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of efficacy and safety. Nutrition in Metabolic and Cardiovascular Disorders. Epublished ahead of print July 21, 2006.
Wang LC, Wang B, Ng SY, Lee TF. Effects of ginseng saponins on beta-amyloid-induced amnesia in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2006;103(1):103-108.
Warren BS, Devine CM. Herbal Medicines and breast cancer risk. Fact Sheet #53. Cornell University Program on Breast Cancer and Environmental Risk Factors. Revised November 2004. Available at: http://envirocancer.cornell.edu/factsheet/diet/fs53/herbal.pdf. Accessed July 14, 2005.
Wassif F. Ginseng; evaluating the evidence. Pharmacy Post. June 2006. Available at: http://www.pharmacygateway.ca/pdfs/CE/ppost_ce_e_jun06.pdf. Accessed November 1, 2006.
Wiwanitkit V, Taungjaruwinai W. A case report of suspected ginseng allergy. Posted July 21, 2004. Medscape General Medicine. 2004;6(3).. Medscape. Available at: http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/482833?src=mp. Accessed July 28, 2004.
Wu XG, Zhu DH, Li X. Anticarcinogenic effect of red ginseng on the development of liver cancer induced by diethylnitrosamine in rats. Journal of Korean Medical Science. 2001;16(Suppl):S61-S65.
Xie JT, Wang CZ, Wang AB, Wu J, Basila D, Yuan CS. Antihyperglycemic effects of total ginsenosides from leaves and stem of Panax ginseng. Acta Pharmacologica Sineca. 2005;26(9):1104-1110.
Yeo M, Kim DK, Cho SW, Hong HD. Ginseng, the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, protects ethanol-induced gastric damages in rat through the induction of cytoprotective heat-shock rrotein 27. Digestive Diseases Science. Epublished ahead of print. September 1, 2007.
Yoshikawa M, Sugimoto S, Nakamura S, Sakumae H, Matsuda H. Medicinal flowers. XVI. New dammarane-type triterpene tetraglycosides and gastroprotective principles from flower buds of Panax ginseng. Chemistry and Pharmacy Bulletin (Tokyo). 2007;55(7):1034-1038.
Yue PY, Mak NK, Cheng YK, et al. Pharmacogenomics and the Yin/Yang actions of ginseng: anti-tumor, angiomodulating and steroid-like activities of ginsenosides. Chinese Medicine. 2007;2:6.
Yue PY, Wong DY, Ha WY, et al. Elucidation of the mechanisms underlying the angiogenic effects of ginsenoside Rg(1) in vivo and in vitro. Angiogenesis. 2005;8(3):205-216.
Youl Kang H, Hwan Kim S, Jun Lee W, Byrne HK. Effects of ginseng ingestion on growth hormone, testosterone, cortisol, and insulin-like growth factor 1 responses to acute resistance exercise. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. 2002;16(2):179-183.
Yun TK. Experimental and epidemiological evidence on non-organ specific cancer preventive effect of Korean ginseng and identification of active compounds. Mutation Research. 2003;523-524:63-74.
Yun TK. Brief introduction of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer. Journal of Korean Medical Science. 2001;16(Suppl):S3-S5.
Yun TK. Panax ginseng--a non-organ-specific cancer preventive? Lancet Oncology. 2001;2(1):49-55.
Yun TK, Choi SY. Preventive effect of ginseng intake against various human cancers: a case-control study on 1987 pairs. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers and Prevention. 1995;4(4):401-408.
Yun TK, Lee YS, Lee YH, Kim SI, Yun HY. Anticarcinogenic effect of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer and identification of active compounds. Journal of Korean Medical Science. 2001;16(Suppl):S6-S18.
Zhang QH, Wu CF, Duan L, Yang JY. Protective effects of total saponins from stem and leaf of Panax ginseng against cyclophosphamide-induced genotoxicity and apoptosis in mouse bone marrow cells and peripheral lymphocyte cells. Food Chemistry and Toxicology. Epublished ahead of print. August 23, 2007.
Zhang Z, Li X, Lv W, et al. Ginsenoside re reduces insulin resistance through inhibition of JNK and NF-{kappa}B. Molecular Endocrinology. Epublished ahead of print. September 20, 2007.
Last Revised October 17, 2007
|